Turk and Mongol Rule of Iraq

Persian Buywayhids Conquer Baghdad (934): The Persian Shi’a dynasty conquered Baghdad from the Abbasid rulers. Through 981, they conquered most of Central Iraq (the alluvial plain) and Iran. They kept the Abbasid ruling family as spiritual leaders in Baghdad. The Buywayhid Dynasty came to an end in 1055, when Baghdad was captured by the Seljuk Turks.

Turkish Seljuk Empire Conquers Persia (1044): The Seljuks (Turks from Central Asia) conquered Persia from the Buywayhid Dynasty. They took upon themselves Persian language and culture.

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Seljuks Conquer Mesopotamia (1055): Seljuks conquered Baghdad from the Buywayhids. They pledged loyalty to the Abbasid Caliphate, but essentially took control of the empire, with the caliphate serving as a figurehead, primarily recognized as spiritual leaders. The Abbasids rule is reduced to just Baghdad and surrounding area.

Abbasids Maintain Control of Baghdad (1157): Seljuks unsuccessfully attempted a siege of Baghdad to end Abbasid sovereignty in the city.

Beginning of Kurdish Ayyubid Dynasty (1174-94): The Kurdish Ayyubid Dynasty conquered the Seljuks, bringing an end to their empire. Kurds were sent to Egypt by the Abbasids in 1174 to secure their rule there, as subordinates to the Abbasids, who had maintained rule over Baghdad, and had managed to extend influence to the Kurd territories to the north. The Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt had devolved into chaos, leaving it ripe for the taking. Once the Kurds submitted Egypt under control, they refused to relinquish authority to the Abbasids. Instead, they installed themselves as the supreme rulers, and proceeded to expand their empire (Ayyubid Dynasty) throughout North Africa, Syria, Palestine, Northern Iraq, Western Arabia and Northern Mesopotamia.

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Mongols Conquer Iran (1224): The Ilkhanate Mongol Dynasty conquered Iran, and convert to Islam from Buddhism.

Fall of Ayyubid Empire (1250): Mamluks conquered Egypt from the Ayyubids, ending their dynasty. Mamluks were Turkish slaves (and Muslim converts) that were formed into military units by Muslim captors. They became a powerful force, shedding the yoke of their masters and asserting rule over other nations at times, such as Egypt in this case. The Mamluks also converted to Islam.

Ilkhanate Mongols Conquer Baghdad and Anatolia (1258): The Ilkhanate destroyed Baghdad, killing the Abbasid Caliph. They proceeded northwest to conquer the rest of Mesopotamia and Anatolia. The Kurds were also brought under Mongol rule.

Mamluks Defeat Mongols in Syria (1260): The Mamluks prevented the Mongols from expanding further west, defeating them in Syria, and keeping their own empire intact.

End of Ilkhanate Empire (1335): The Mongol Ilkhanate came to an end, fragmenting into various, petty successor states throughout Mesopotamia (Iraq) and Persia (Iran).

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Expansion of Mongol-Turk Timurids into Persia and Iraq (1382 - 1410): The Timurid clan originated with a nomadic Mongol tribe that settled in Turkic Central Asia. They intermixed with the local Turk population, forming a new Mongol-Turk ethnogroup. The Timurids adopted Turkic language and culture, and converted to Islam. They expanded into Persia and Iraq in 1382, filling the power vacuum left behind by the Mongol Ilkhanate, which disintegrated in 1335, leaving behind a collection of petty kingdoms.

Black Sheep Turkmen Conquer Mesopotamia (1410): This Turk tribal federation living in Mesopotamia rose to power, capturing Baghdad and the rest of Mesopotamia.

White Sheep Turkmen Conquer Mesopotamia and Persia (1468): This Turk tribal federation based in modern Turkey defeated the Black Sheep Turkmen, then proceeded to capture Mesopotamia and Iran.

Persian Safavid Dynasty Rises (1501): The White Sheep Turkmen lost most of their empire to the Safavid Dynasty. The White Sheep Turks held out in Baghdad until 1508 before their final and utter defeat. Safavids were of mixed ethnicity (Azerbaijan, Caucasus/Georgia, Greek, Kurdish), a priestly class who migrated from Azerbaijan. The Savavids developed into the greatest Iranian empire since the Islamic conquest of Iran. They were previously Sunni, as most Persians/Iranians were, but had recently converted to Shi’a, beginning the Shi’a legacy in Persia/Iran, which divides Iran from most of the rest of the Islamic countries to this day.

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Turkic Ottoman Empire Conquers Iraq/Baghdad (1514-34): The Ottomans were a Turk confederation based in modern Turkey. They were a Sunni Muslim Caliphate, making conflict with the Shi'a Safavids inevitable. The Ottomans were a far greater military power, bringing a much larger army, along with artillery lacked by the Safavids. In 1514, they successfully defeated the Safavids in Iraq. In 1517, the Ottoman Turks defeated the Mamluks, taking over Syria and Egypt. They completed their conquest of Iraq by capturing Baghdad in 1534.

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Mongol and Turkic Impact on Iraq

Arab-Muslim conquests of Iraq in the 7th century brought a new order and culture to Iraq, which was preserved during the Seljuk Turk era. Even though the Mongols converted to Islam, they largely destroyed the order and stability of Western Asia, Iraq included. Cities and institutions were decimated, and populations reduced in brutal fashion. Baghdad was a shining beacon for the Muslim world for 500 years before the Mongol invasions. After being almost completely demolished, it remained a dilapidated outpost throughout the duration of Mongol Rule. The Mongol era in particular served as a dark ages of sorts for the Middle East, as architectural and academic prowess came to a halt. The effect proved to be long term and devastating, as Iraq would never fully recover. It remained a disorderly province of the Ottoman Empire for four centuries, enabling the British to take control after WWI. Even after shedding British rule in 1958, Iraq would remain vulnerable to instability and repressive, authoritarian rule. The Mongols and Turks had little genetic impact on Iraqis, suggesting minimal intermixing of the ruling class with the general population.

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Next: Ottoman Empire (1534 - 1917)

Previous: Arab Muslim Caliphate (633 - 930)

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