Gulf War and Sanctions Against Iraq

Controversy Over Debt: Iraq borrowed $40 billion from Kuwait during the Iran-Iraq War. Iraq demanded that the debt be forgiven, since it provided an invaluable service to the Arab world by preventing the Iranian conquest of the Middle East. Kuwait refused to comply with Iraqi insistence.
Accusations of Economic Warfare: Iraq tried to keep oil prices up after the Iran-Iraq War to lift itself out of dire economic circumstances. Kuwait increased production during this time, driving oil prices down, and compounding Iraqi economic troubles. Iraq claimed this was tantamount to economic warfare. Iraq also accused Kuwait of slant-drilling into oil fields within Iraqi borders.
Sovereignty Debate: Iraq argued that Kuwait was a natural part of Iraq, but wrongfully carved out by the British for imperialistic purposes. The British had wrested control of most of the Iraqi Persian Gulf coastal territory from the Ottoman Empire in the 18th century, maintaining control during the remainder of Ottoman rule in Iraq, forming the basis for the modern nation of Kuwait. When the UK assumed control over Iraq after WWI, they insisted that Kuwait remain a separate nation. Iraq did not recognize Kuwaiti sovereignty until 1963, and begrudgingly even then. Going into 1990, Iraq sensed an opportunity to finally take back what it believed to be rightfully part of its territory.
Implied U.S. Consent: The US was on record stating that it had no opinion in regards to Arab conflicts, which Saddam understood as an indirect endorsement for its threatened invasion of Kuwait.
Economic Benefits: In addition to the justifications of an invasion of Kuwait, from the perspective of Iraq, there were major economic advantages as well. Kuwait was an oil-rich nation, with a well-established and highly operational oil infrastructure, unlike the mine-infested and bullet-riddled oil facilities in Iraq. Kuwait represented an opportunity to lift Iraq out of its economic hole, largely caused by its extended war with Iran. Plus, Kuwait offered productive ports along the coast of the Persian Gulf, which were sorely lacked by Iraq's current coastal access, inhibiting its oil export capabilities. Finally, by taking possession of Kuwait, Iraq could write off the $40 billion in debt owed.

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Iraqi Invasion (Aug 2, 1990): Despite the recent signals of war, including the Iraqi build up of troops along the border, Kuwait was caught off guard by Iraq's invasion. The Iraqi invading force far-outnumbered the Kuwaiti forces, who mounted a brief and feeble resistance. Most of the Kuwaiti royal family escaped the country during the attack.

Iraqi Occupation of Kuwait (Aug, 1990 - Feb, 1991): Iraq occupied Kuwait for 7 months before being evicted by the UN forces (led by the US) during the Gulf War. During Iraqi occupation, about half the Kuwaiti population fled the country, while many human rights abuses were reported.

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Note: International Reaction to Kuwaiti Invasion. Saddam underestimated the international reaction his invasion would invoke, anticipating it would be viewed as strictly an Arab matter. However, the oil-rich region proved to be too critical to western interests, provoking UN resolutions condemning the invasion, as well as levying economic sanctions against Iraq, along with a naval blockade in the Persian Gulf.

Operation Desert Shield (Aug 7, 1990): A non-combative, defensive deployment of troops by the US to protect Iraq from advancing into Saudi Arabia. After Iraq took control of Kuwait, Saddam began to engage in threatening rhetoric in regards to Saudi Arabia, including the grievance concerning the kingdom's refusal to forgive the $26 billion loan to Iraq. Iraq was now in striking distance of Saudi Arabia's most productive oil fields, which would have given Iraq possession of the majority of the world's oil reserves if conquered, an uncomfortable scenario for the US and other western nations. To ensure this did not happen, the US mobilized about 543,000 troops into the region.

Further Understanding: Causes for US-Led Invasion

UN Ultimatum Ignored: On Nov. 29, 1990, the UN demanded that Iraq withdraw from Kuwait by Jan. 15, 1991, authorizing use of force if Iraq failed to comply. This UN resolution was disregarded by Iraq. According to the UN, violating internationally-recognized Kuwaiti sovereignty was unacceptable.
Questionable Accusations: In addition to the unlawful invasion, the US bought into other accusations that later proved false or embellished. Some reports of human rights abuse were later exposed as fabrications, although some allegations were later substantiated. The claim that Iraqi forces were building up at the Kuwaiti-Saudi Arabian border also proved to be false.

Gulf War Begins with Air Campaign (Jan. 17, 1991): Two days after the UN-mandated Iraqi withdrawal date had passed, the US-led forces began extensive bombing of Iraqi military installations in Western Iraq and strategic targets in Baghdad. Civilian infrastructural targets would also be destroyed, transforming Iraq from one of the most developed Arab nations into one of the most dilapidated. The air strikes proved devastating, ruining most of Iraq's military, and preventing it from effectively deploying most of its enormous army.

Coalition Ground Forces Move In - Bringing Quick End to War (Feb. 24, 1991): After the massive air campaign had rendered the Iraqi military completely crippled, ground forces entered Iraq from Saudi Arabia, although covert forces had previously carried out operations inside Iraqi borders. By Feb. 26, Iraqi forces began fleeing Kuwait, setting fire to Kuwaiti oil fields as they retreated. The coalition forces easily pushed deep into the heart of Iraq, inflicting heavy losses. After four days of the Coalition's ground advance, it was clear that Iraq had withdrew from Kuwait, and that its military was decimated, encouraging the US to establish a cease fire, ending combat on Feb. 28, 1991.

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Further Understanding: Aftermath & Analysis of Gulf War

Coalition Forces: 34 countries contributed, but 73% were U.S. The coalition included Arab nations, who feared continued Iraqi expansionism.
Palestinians Expelled from Kuwait: Over 400,000 suspected of being sympathetic to the Iraqi occupation were evicted, the majority being Palestinian nationals.
US Forces in Saudi Arabia: Under fear of Iraqi invasion, US troops were stationed in Saudi Arabia, and remained until asked to leave in 2003.
Casualties: Coalition forces suffered 190 deaths; Iraq suffered 20,000-200,000 deaths including 3,600+ civilian deaths; Kuwaiti deaths unknown; 2 Israeli civilian deaths from Iraqi Scud missile attacks (230 Israelis wounded).

Kurd Insurgency (Mar., 1991): Immediately following the Gulf War, the Kurds were encouraged by the U.S. to rise up and topple Saddam from power. But the U.S. failed to deliver promised support, and the uprising was brutally crushed by the Iraqi army. As a result, droves of Kurds fled across the border into Turkey.

Shi'a Uprising in Karbala (Mar., 1991): During the Gulf War, the US called for Shi'a to rise up against Saddam, pledging American assistance. Shi'a in Karbala took heart, and gained control of the city by Mar. 6. U.S. promises of support were left unfulfilled, resulting in the murderous suppression of the revolt by Saddam and his Republican Guard forces. Republican Guard forces rounded up all suspected of aiding the insurgency, and executed them en masse.

Further Understanding: Marsh Arabs Suffer Saddam's Wrath

Occupied the wetlands along the very southeastern shores of the Tigris-Euphrates marshlands. Their origins have long been debated, but there is evidence they represent the strongest genetic link to ancient Sumerians/Babylonians. Since the independence of Iraq, the marshlands had become a refuge for dissidents. They were suspected of contributing to the Shi'a revolts immediately following the Gulf War. As retribution, Saddam redirected the river to drain the marshlands, forcing all but a few thousand of the half a million Marsh Arabs to flee the region, with many emigrating to Iran. The river to the marshlands was unblocked after the 2003 U.S. invasion, but very few have been able to return due to the slow ecological recovery.

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Chemical Weapons Production Capability Destroyed During Gulf War (1991): The heart of Iraq's chemical weapons program resided in Samarra, which was bombed extensively by the Coalition during the Gulf War. After the Gulf War, the facility was closely inspected by the UN inspection team (UNSCOM). Facilities in Samarra would never again produce chemical weapons, and the UNSCOM team verified the destruction of all of the potentially useful chemical weapon stockpiles. Other containers of outdated stockpiles were reported and sealed. Some remained unaccounted for, likely due to inadequate record-keeping by Iraq and looting in the aftermath of the Gulf War.

Small-Scale Biological Weapons Program: Following the Gulf War, Iraq secretly initiated the development of biological weapons on a small scale, in hidden locations such as a chicken farm. Iraqi scientists involved in the covert program attempted to conceal its existence, but as evidence mounted, they disclosed the BW program. However, scientists and officials continued to obfuscate the efforts of inspectors to track down all remnants of the program. Despite the deception, inspectors were adament that Iraq did not possess the capability to produce meaningful amounts of biological weapons, which proved to be the case during U.S. investigations following occupation of Iraq.

Defunct Iraqi Nuclear Program: During the 1980s, Iraq had invested $10 billion into its nuclear weapon program. By the start of the Gulf War in 1991, Iraq was apparently close to developing a nuclear weapon. However, its nuclear facilities were decimated by air strikes during the Gulf War, essentially ending Iraq's nuclear program. During the UN inspections, Iraq illegally maintained technical design reports containing details on how to construct a nuclear weapon, which it finally turned over to the UN in Dec. of 2002. Nonetheless, Iraq never resumed its nuclear program after the Gulf War. In the lead up to the US-led coalition invasion of Iraq in 2003, the Bush administration claimed Iraq purchased uranium and aluminum tubes for the enrichment of uranium, both of which proved to be false.

Inspectors Evacuated (1998 & 2003): The U.S. insisted that inspectors leave Iraq in 1998, in anticipation of the pending Operation Desert Fox air strike campaign, a response to evasive tactics used to impede UN WMD inspections. Following the campaign, they were not permitted to return by Saddam until Nov. of 2002. Team leader Hans Blix claimed that Iraq was overall very cooperative, but potentially not 100% cooperative, leaving the door cracked open just enough to justify invasion. Inspectors were demanded to evacuate by the U.S. in March of 2003, just before the invasion.

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Further Understanding:
Human Rights Abuses Under Saddam Hussein

* Executions without Due Process
* Government Approved Acts of Torture and Rape
* Large-Scale Massacres of Kurds and Shi'a Muslims
* Amputation and Death Penalty for Petty Crimes
* Use of Chemical Weapons Against Iraqi Citizens (Kurds)
* Use of Chemical Weapons Against Iranian Citizens & Military
* National Government Positions Limited to Ba'ath Party Members
* Citizens Not Allowed to Assemble
* Restriction of Movement Inside and Outside of Iraq
* Saddam's Sons Tortured & Murdered with Virtual Impunity

U.S.-Supported Opposition Groups

Iraq National Congress:

A multi-sect resistant group created by the CIA in 1992 with the objective of deposing the Saddam government. The INC was set up to replace the Saddam regime. It was based in Kurdish Northern Iraq, and consisted of Kurds, Shi'a and Sunni of various political persuasions. It quickly proved to be ineffectual, and susceptible to in-fighting. The INC helped persuade Bush to invade Iraq in 2003, but was quickly sidelined by the administration, and failed to earn a place in the replacement government.

Iraqi National Accord:

Established in 1991 by defectors from the Iraqi army. It's military ties attracted the backing of the CIA. Involved in an unsuccessful coup attempt in 1996 before being infiltrated by agents loyal to Saddam, resulting in the execution of 30 military officers. Remained lightly active until the 2003 invasion. Played a part in the interim and elected Iraqi governments.

Further Understanding of Economic Sanctions Against Iraq

Purpose of Sanctions (1990 - 2003):

The original sanctions against the Saddam regime were designed to compel Iraq to withdraw from Kuwait in 1990. After the Gulf War, when Iraq was driven from Kuwait by force, the sanctions remained in place due to heightened distrust of Saddam Hussein. Of particular concern was the stockpile of chemical and biological weapons, and the feared possibility of a functioning nuclear program. During the 1970s and 80s, several western nations helped Iraq to develop WMDs, but in the aftermath of its preemptive invasion of Kuwait, and due to the fact that Saddam had proved willing to use them in war and against rebellious Iraqi citizens, the international community was no longer comfortable with the idea of a WMD-armed Iraq. In which case, after the Gulf War, the sanctions served the purpose of ensuring Iraq was verifiably eradicated of its WMD arsenal. Other underlying motivations included compelling Iraq to pay its debt, and weakening the Iraqi military and economy to facilitate Saddam's removal from power. The sanctions prohibited Iraq from freely selling its oil on the open market, dramatically reducing its revenues.

Role in the Deprivation of Civilians & Children:

There is no question that Iraqi citizens suffered immensely as a result of the sanctions, resulting in mass malnutrition, a sharp increase in child mortality rates and child labor, economic decay and a drastic drop in education levels. The question then became, was the UN to blame for levying harsh sanctions, or was Saddam to blame for failing to carry out his obligations under the provisions of the sanctions. On one hand, the UN-administered areas in the Kurdish territory to the north largely avoided these adverse effects, while the rest of the country directly administered to by the Saddam government experienced the worst of the adverse effects. On the other hand, the UN-administered north was allocated a disproportionately high ration of the Iraqi oil proceeds used to feed the Iraqi population under UN oversight. The rest of the naton received a lower share per capita. However, Saddam continued to secretly divert funds to add to his military and construct his lavish palaces while many of his people starved.

Oil-for-Food Scandal:

In 1996, the UN introduced the Oil-for-Food Programme in order to better provide for the essential needs of Iraqi citizens, such as staple foods and medicine, without enabling Iraq to build up its military. Under the program, all proceeds from the sell of oil were deposited in an escrow account controlled by the UN, who would allocate the funds for war reparations and the purchase and delivery of raw food items and medicine to Iraqis. This program was abused in several ways, by an intricate web of individuals and organizations to secretly divert funds directly to Saddam, while providing generous kick-backs to willing accomplices. First, Saddam was able to evade and/or bribe officials in order to blatantly circumvent the program by illegally selling oil directly to sympathetic nations such as Syria, Jordan and Turkey. Second, Saddam covertly worked out generous commissions for accomplices who supplied humanitarian goods, in exchange for a secret kick-back to Saddam under-the-table. Third, there is evidence that UN officials accepted bribes to look the other way while such violations took place.

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