Arab Muslim Caliphate

Arab Muslims Conquer and Convert Most of Arabian Tribes Under Muhammad (632): Muhammad claimed to receive direct revelation from God (Allah) in 610. By 622, he had gained thousands of followers, raising a substantial army as well. He conquered his native Mecca in 630, further adding to his adherents. By his death in 632, Muhammad had consolidated the entire Arabian Peninsula under his rule, with most Arabic tribes converting to Islam.

Muslim Arabs Conquer Iraq from Persian Sassanid Empire (633 - 636): Islam proved to be a powerful unifying force, enabling the previously fragmented Arab tribes to defeat the highly-feared Persian army. The Arab invasion began after the death of Muhammad, led by his successor, Abu Bakr (first Caliph - Muslim Emperor).

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Note: Sassanid Empire Diminished. Unable to stop the Arab Muslim forces, the previously powerful Persian army retreats from Iraq.

Note: Byzantine Empire Expansion. Due to the weakening of the Sassanid Empire, the Byzantine (Greek continuation of Roman Empire) was able to regain territories in the Levant and Egypt.

Further Understanding: Mesopotamia Under Islamic Rule

Became the province of Iraq (a name long associated with the region, perhaps with roots from "Uruk", an ancient city-state). It is the first time Mesopotamia is officially referred to as Iraq. Arabs were stationed in Iraq with the intention of remaining separate from the general populous. Instead, the Arabs intermixed with the Mesopotamians, adding a significant Arabic component to modern Iraqi bloodlines. Since most Mesopotamians converted to Islam, they were fully incorporated into the Muslim Arabic Empire. Despite the pending conquest of Persia, Persians would largely avoid Arabic admixture, remaining a distinct ethnogroup, widening the gap between "Iraqi" and "Persian/Iranian".

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Muslim Conquest of Persia (638 - 644): After conquering Mesopotamia, the Arab Muslims desired peace with the Persian Sassanid Empire. However, the Persians would not accept the new status quo, and continued to launch raids into Mesopotamia. Once the Muslims realized that the Persians would never peacefully cede this territory, they launched an all-out offensive into Persia, ending the Sassanid Empire and placing it under Muslim rule by 644.

Note: Islamization of Persia. Most Persians remained Zoroastrian after the Muslim conquest, as they were not forced to convert to Islam, as long as they accepted Muslim rule peacefully. Widespread Islam conversions among Persians would not occur until the 10th century.

Arab Muslims conquer Egypt (641).

Arab Muslims conquer large tracts of land from weakened Byzantine Empire by 656.

Beginning of "First Fitna" (Muslim Civil War) in 656: The war began with the assassination of Uthman, the 3rd Rashidun ("Rightly Guided") Caliph following Muhammad. The Islamic Empire was successful under Uthman, expanding territory while increasing prosperity and freedoms. However, dissatisfaction with Uthman-appointed governors arose in various areas, resulting in an armed rebellion being dispatched from Egypt to Uthman's palace in Medina. Uthman refused protection from his supporters, insisting that Muslims not draw blood against fellow Muslims. He was assassinated as a result.

Ali Selected as Caliph After Uthman's Assassination (656): The rebels demanded that the citizens of Medina select a new Caliph immediately, or face harsh action. Ali was asked, and refused multiple times, until finally giving in.

Battle of Bassorah (656): Due to the circumstances of Ali's rise to the Caliph, faithful followers (including fellow companions of Muhammad) mobilized a resistance against Ali's regime. In light of this opposition, Ali moved the Muslim capital to Basra (Iraq), where the opposition met him in battle. Ali's forces achieved victory in the first battle where Muslims died at the hands of fellow Muslims.

Muawiyah Defeats Ali - Beginning of Umayyad Dynasty (657 - 661): A cousin of Uthman, and Governer of the Levant (based in Syria) - Muawiyah - refused to offer allegiance to Ali, organizing an armed resistance against Ali's forces. Muawiyah proceeded to systematically gain control of nearly all of the Islamic Empire, forcing Ali to retreat into Basra. With defeat imminent in 661, Ali was assassinated by an assailant, enabling Muawiyah to ascend to the throne, beginning the Umayyad Dynasty. The Umayyads were a "cousin" clan to Muhammad's Hashim clan, but bitterly opposed Muhammad early in his reign, a cause of controversy among many Muslims.

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Note: Sunni-Shi'a Divide. The First Fitna deepened the Sunni-Shi'a divide, as Sunni view Muawiyah as a legitimate successor, while Shi'a view him as a usurper. Iraqis and Perisans remained Sunni during this time, as Persians would not become largely Shi'a until the 16th century.

Muslim Capital Moved to Damascus, Syria (661): Muawiyah, the first emperor (caliph) of the Umayyad Dynasty, was governer of the Levant before ascending to the throne of the Muslim Empire at the end of the First Fatna (Civil War). In which case, Damascus was where his power base was centered.

Iraqi Revolt (686 - 691): A competing claimant to the throne (Al-Mukhtar) revolted, splintering Iraq from Umayyad rule. The revolt was crushed in 691, with Iraq restored to Umayyad rule.

Further Understanding: Dissatisfaction with Umayyad Rule

The Umayyads were effective at expansion, but doing so imposed a toll on its citizens in terms of compulsory military service and the difficulties and expenses in incorporating new nations into their empire. The Umayyad regime was also disparaging in their view of Muslim converts, creating animosity amongst many of its new citizens, as many of them converted en masse once conquered, in large part due to the lifting of the added tax burden placed upon non-Muslims. As a result, revolts proliferated throughout empire. Umayyads also disaffected the original Islamic base, since the Umayyad ruling class was much less pious, and much more worldly than the Rashidun Caliphs following Muhammad. The Umayyads viewed themselves as “deputies” of god rather than “messengers” of god, so they focused more on administration and militarism than theology. This did not bode well with many of the constituents.

Fall of the Umayyad Dynasty to Abbasid Dynasty (749 - 750): Eastern Persia fell to the rival Abbasid-led rebellion in 749. The Abbasids were descendants of Muhammad's youngest uncle. The Abassids defeated the Umayyads in 750 in Iraq. One grandson in Umayyad family survived, and escaped to Moorish Hispania to continue Umayyad Dynasty there. Abbasids succeeded by pointing out the moral deficiencies of the Umayyads, in order to raise rebellions.

Foundation of Baghdad by Abbasids (762): The Abbasid Caliphate founded Baghdad as the new capital of its empire. It was the perfect location due to a plentiful water supply combined with a dry climate. Being the center of the most powerful empire on earth, Baghdad became an epicenter for scholarship and commerce. It was the largest city in the world until about 930, when it was equaled by Cordoba in the Umayyad-ruled Iberia (Spain).

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Note: Golden Age of Islam Begins in Baghdad. It began when Baghdad became the intellectual epicenter of the world. The Abbasid ruling dynasty valued scholarship more than martyrdom, causing them to focus their efforts in learning more than war. As a result, they made groundbreaking advances in nearly all fields of knowledge, including literature, science, philosophy, medicine and more. Under Abbasid tutelage, many classical works were restored and translated into Arabic.

Note: Kurdish Revolts. The Kurds in Northern Iraq would continue to frequently revolt against Abbasid rule. As a result, they largely remained semi-autonomous. The Kurds are of Iranian origins. They were a nomadic people who settled in Northern Mesopotamia some time before 400 BC.

Abbasid Decline (850 - 930): Abbasid central authority began to break down throughout the empire, with many factions operating as de facto states with their own hereditary rulers, armies, bureaucracies, etc. Semi-independent states cropped up throughout Persia and Syria in particular.

Fatimid Dynasty Conquers North Africa & Syria (909 - 969): The Fatimids were a North African-based Arab dynasty with roots originating with Muhammad's daughter. They (also Arab) conquered all of Islamic North Africa from the weakening Abbasids, along with Syria and the western edge of Arabia.

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Origins and Spread of Islam

Birth and Early Life of Muhammad (570): Born in Mecca. Orphaned by age 6, cared for by his uncle. At age 9-12, began working as camel driver on Arabia-Syria trade routes. Successful trade merchant as adult. Exposed to Judaism and Christianity.

Vision and Early Proselytizing (610): Muhammad often meditated in cave near Mecca. In 610, according to Islamic tradition, visited by Angel Gabriel, who delivered verses of Qur'an. Instructed to convert fellow Arabs, but met with persecution, yet physically protected by his prominent Hashim family. Positioned Islam as an Arabian religion, replete with pilgrimages and rituals familiar to Arabians, but with belief and worship of the one and only "Allah" (God) instead of polytheism.

Muhammad Flees Mecca for Medina (619): Wife and uncle (leader of Hashim clan) died. New clan leadership withdrew protection. Moved to Medina where converts offered protection. Converts grew substantially in Medina. Preached among the Jewish tribes of Medina, presenting Islam as continuation of Jewish prophecy, and himself as the last in line of Hebrew prophets. He taught to pray toward Jerusalem. Changed prayer direction toward Mecca when rejected by Jews.

Muhammad Rises to Power in Medina and War with Mecca (620-28): Became judge in 620. Calls for all-out war against Mecca. From 624-28, leads Medina Muslims in indecisive war against Mecca. Conquest of Arabian Peninsula (628-32): Entered peace treaty with Mecca in 628. Nullified in 630 as Muslim converts and army grew. Muhammad then led Muslim Medina in conquest of Mecca. All of Arabian Peninsula were conquered and coverted before his death in 632. Death of Muhammad and Expansion of Muslim Empire (632-1000): After his death, militarily-powerful Muslims, confined in resource-deprived Arabian Peninsula, expanded north to gain control over needed resources. Initially, conquered peoples are not intended to convert, just expected to comply with Arab-Muslim rule. Islam still viewed as Arab religion. Non-Arab conversion discouraged. Arab soldiers intermixed with locals throughout empire, spreading religion through familial ties. Others voluntarily converted, due to break-down of their own religious heritages which are no longer upheld by local political entities. Conversion also meant tax breaks and increased social-political status. Initial converts often treated with hostility by non-pious Umayyad Dynasty (661-750), who limited conversions over concern of diluted Arab favoritism and reduced tax revenues.The more pious Abbasid Dynasty (750-930) made conversion widely available, more than doubling Islamic penetration to nearly 100% during their rule.

Full Article: Origin and Spread of Islam

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