Roman Dominance (290 BC - 235 AD)
Europe During the Peak of the Roman Empire

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1st Punic War, Rome vs. Carthage (264-241 BC): Carthage & Rome clash in Sicily, instigating full-scale war. Carthage has world's most advanced navy, but Rome surpasses them within course of war, capturing all of Sicily, Sardinia & Corsica.

Roman Illyria Conquered (229 BC): Rome conquers Illyria, covering parts of modern Croatia, Bosnia, Montenegro and Albania.

(Timeline Continued Below)

2nd Punic War (218-201 BC): Carthage attempts to reverse results of 1st war. Hannibal successfully invades Italy from north, but driven back. Rome takes the offense, capturing southern Iberian coastal territories. Carthage retains African lands, but essentially client state to Rome.

Bulgars (~ 200): Bulgars, an Iranian people originating around modern Afghanistan migrate all the way to Europe by about 200 AD, settling along NW coast of Black Sea (modern Ukraine). Eventually migrate to modern Bulgaria along SW coast of Black Sea to establish Bulgarian Empire, predecessor of modern nation of Bulgaria.

Roman Greece Conquered (197 BC): Rome defeats Macedon. Other Greek city-states previously under Macedon rule follow soon after. Rome takes advantage of the Greeks inability to unite, conquering all of the Greek people. Rome was already under the heavy influence of Greek culture, which further increases. Especially evident in architecture, coded laws, education & government.

3rd Punic War (149-146 BC): Carthage begins to build military again, rebelling against oppressive policies, as not favored by Rome. Rome delivers final crushing blow, destroying Carthage, taking control of African territories, & selling Carthiginians into slavery.

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Note: Rome's Mediterranean Sea Geopolitical Advantage. The ability to control the Mediterranean Sea proves to be a strategic key in achieving a massive, transcontinental empire. The situation repeats itself on a larger scale in the future, as Great Britain is able to build a massive, worldwide empire through its naval control of the Atlantic & Indian Oceans. By the 20th century, the U.S. becomes the leading world power, exerting its will throughout the world, due to its naval dominance of the world's oceans.

Article: Explaining the Rise and Dominance of Rome

Roman Asia (133 BC): Rome conquers west Anatolia (modern Turkey), establishing their first Asian province.

Weakened Roman Republic (107 BC): Series of civil wars weakens Republic (senatorial) government.

Roman Dacia (106 AD): Rome conquers Dacians & Thracians in modern Romania/Bulgaria. Becomes highly Romanized, region later known as "Romania" as result.

Roman Crete (69 BC): Rome conquers the Greek island of Crete.

Roman Syria (64 BC): Syria conquered, Roman Province of Syria established.

Roman Judaea (63 BC): Judaea conquered by the Romans, who initially add this new territory to the Province of Syria, but eventually break it off as its own individual province.

First Triumvirate - Rome (60-44 BC): Secret political alliance between Caesar, Crassus & Pompey to share power. Rome now run as autocracy instead of republic. Civil war between the 3 factions (49-44 BC) results in death of the 3 rulers, ending with Caesar's death in 44 BC.

Roman Germania (58 BC): Rome conquers Germanic tribes in the western edges of their territories, establishing Roman provinces in these regions. Unable to expand any deeper into Germanic lands.

Roman Gaul Conquered (51 BC): Roman-Gallic Wars end with Rome conquering all of Celtic Gaul. Gaul is the name the Romans assigned to this Celtic region. Celts are far more easily conquered by Romans than loosely-organized Germanics, since Celts lived in more organized societies, and could be submitted en masse after a major military victory. German tribes also proved to be more militarily adept. The Gallic Celt population becomes Romanized, speaking the Latin language, but with some Gallic influence. This differentiates it from other Latin ("Romance") languages, serving as the predecessor to the French language.

Second Triumvirate - Rome (43-30 BC): Octavian, Lepidus & Antony form public political alliance to share power, representing the 3 political factions. After civil war breaks out again, Octavian becomes sole survivor when Antony dies in Egypt in 30 BC. Restores power to Senate.

Roman Egypt (30 BC): Egypt conquered by Rome. Marc Antony gained control of Egypt (through union w/Cleopatra), but was defeated in Egypt by Octavian during Roman civil war. This ended the Hellenistic era (as part of Greek Ptolemy Dynasty), marking the beginning of the Roman era for Egypt.

Beginning of Roman Empire (27 BC): Upon defeating rivals, Octavian is given title of Augustus (Illustrious One). Refuses to become dictator, but given unlimited powers by Senate (due to popularity with general public), so essentially rules as Emperor. Lifetime powers not given, but the public riots in 22BC when he does not seek re-election. Therefore, Octavian takes throne with even greater power. Results in peace & stability, as public chooses emperor over political infighting & civil strife that infected Senate. Begins tradition of successive heirs to throne, ending Republic (representative) in favor of Empire (monarchy/authoritarian).

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 Further Understanding:  How the Concept of "Italy" Materializes

As Rome expands beyond Italian peninsula, the peninsula is viewed as Roman homeland (heart of empire). With this being the case, it is especially troubling whenever Italy is invaded, but not as much when other parts of the empire are invaded. The peninsula provides natural continuity, despite the fact that it is home to multiple ethnogroups, such as Etruscans, Latins, Celts & Greeks. But with the recognition of "Italia" as the homeland, these separate nations of people develop a common group identity as "Italians", forming a new "nation" replacing previous group identities of Italian peoples. Italia was named after the Latin people who established Rome. By 7 BC, the territory to the north of the peninsula also becomes a natural part of Italy, as it is surrounded by the Alps, geographically enjoining it to the peninsula. Roman "Italia" closely approximated modern Italy, serving as the basis for the modern state of Italy.

Germanic Tribes Defeat Roman Army (9 AD): Rome attempts conquest of "Germania", but is annihilated by Germanic tribes. Withdraw back toward Rhine & Danube Rivers, never attempting to conquer Germanic lands again.

Note: How & Why Germanic Peoples Resisted Roman Conquest. Most European peoples bordering the Romans were conquered, especially the Celts, who became "Romanized", losing touch with their Celtic heritage. Germans were more tribal and loosely organized, yet exceedingly numerous, making them more difficult to subdue. Germanic peoples also utilized guerilla tactics against the rigidly structured Roman military. Even though Romans inflicted military defeats upon Germanic peoples, they could not sustain control in their territories for the reasons above.

Rest of Hispania Captured by Rome (19 AD): Rome expands Hispania. The Celt-Iberian population becomes Romanized, speaking Latin (predecessor to Spanish & Portuguese), & taking upon themselves Roman culture. Hispania serves as important source of metals, needed for Roman military campaigns. The southern coastal lands of the Iberian peninsula (captured during Punic Wars) are combined with the rest of the peninsula to constitute the Province of Hispania.

Roman Britannia (43 AD): Rome conquers area roughly corresponding to modern England.

Note: Scottish and Irish Ancestors Resist Roman Rule. Pict tribes to the north (modern Scotland) & Gaellic tribes to the east (modern island of Ireland) resist Roman conquest. As a result, they maintain their Celtic languages & cultures. This serves as the basis for the subdivision of "Britain" peoples, as those that fall under Roman rule later become English, while those that resist later become Scots and Irish. Celtic-based Scottish & Irish languages still exist to this day, but both are spoken only in pockets of these respective regions, as English would eventually become the dominant language throughout both Scotland & Ireland.

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Christianity Spread in Roman Empire (47-67 AD): Paul of Tarsus spreads Christianity among the Gentiles (non-Jews) with a series of missions into Greek lands & Italy. Early Christians suffer persecutions by Romans for the next 250 years, for reasons such as refusal to worship the Roman emperor. Christianity will dominate Roman Empire by 4th century, & all of Europe by Dark Ages. Rome's network of roads & relative security along roadways expedited missionary travels. There is evidence both supporting and bringing to question the historicity of Paul.

Article: How Christianity Rose to Dominate Europe

Rome Conquers Wales (70 AD): Rome conquers area roughly equal to Wales.

Jews Deported from Jerusalem (70-150): Jews deported from Jerusalem in response to revolts against Roman rule. Many still remain within Palestine region, while many migrate to other areas in Empire. Many sold into slavery.

Note: Effect of Deportations on Religious Worship. Religious life changes from Temple authority (based on performing rituals/ceremonies at the Temple in Jerusalem) to Rabbinical authority. Rabbinical authority is necessitated by the scattering of Jews, making Temple worship and authority impossible. It is based on Rabbis becoming religious leaders on local levels, with religious practice now based on adhering to the Torah and oral laws wherever they may be.

Roman Mesopotamia (116): Romans conquer Mesopotamia (centered around modern Baghdad and surrounding region), marking the peak expansion of the Roman Empire.

Roman Mesopotamia Abandoned (118): Due to intense revolts, the Romans withdraw from Mesopotamia, beginning the long, gradual decline of the Roman Empire.

Germanic Migrations (150 - 166): Germanic tribes migrate into Roman territory, south of Danube River, forced south due to invasions from eastern peoples & famine. They are then pushed back north. Germanics begin displacing Slavs & Scynthians north of the Danube River, with the exception of the Poles, who retain their lands in modern South Poland.

Jewish Emancipation in Rome (212): Free Jews throughout the Roman Empire are given full Roman citinzenship status, enabling them to pursue most trades and practice religion freely. This would last until Christianity was later made the official religion of the Empire.

(Timeline Continued Below)

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Note: Baltic peoples cover large portion of Eastern Europe. They are distinguished by a distinct culture & language, the predecessor to modern Balt culture & languages. During this time period, they remained a cohesive yet tribal society. Due to their remote location & lack of a written language, very little is known about Ancient Balts.

Note: Finnic peoples are primary inhabitants of NE Europe, including modern Finland, Estonia & NW Russia (most populated region of modern Russia). Finnic are the ancestors of modern Finnish & Estonians.

Note: Norse and Swedes. North Germanic peoples begin to subdivide into distinctive subgroups. The Norse ethnogroup begins to form on the west side of the Scandinavian Mountain Range (basis for much of the current Norway-Sweden border), while the Swedes begin to form on the east side. The Norse are the forefathers to the modern Norwegians, and the Swedes are the predecessors to modern Swedish.

Note: Slavs. By the 3rd century AD, Slavs centered around Kiev (Ukraine) begin to develop a distinct Slav culture & language. They also start to expand modestly in all directions.

Note: Poles break off from Slav ethnogroup, becoming the dominant tribe in modern southern Poland. The Germanic migrations will pass through or closely around their territories, without seriously threatening their settlements. Eventually establish Kingdom of Poland.

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