Recent History in Europe, 1989

Detailed Timeline of European History

Post-World War II Era (1945-89) << Recent History in Europe (1989 - 2008)

Recent History in Europe (1989 - 2008)
USSR collapse, Rise of the European Union, Islamic Extremism

2008 Status for Each Country

Attempted Reform in Faltering Soviet Union (1990): Economic and social reforms designed to reverse decline of USSR backfire. As the USSR continues its slide, individual republics within the Soviet Union begin to withhold tax revenues, seriously undermining central control.

Break-Away Soviet Republics (1990): The central Soviet Union government was forced to allow more autonomy to the individual republics. Republics such as Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia assert independence from the USSR.

(Timeline Continued Below)

Newly-Independent Soviet Republics Transition to Democracy and European Integration (1990-91): Several Eastern European nations were liberated upon the collapse of the Soviet Union, enabling them to democratize and become integrated with the rest of Europe, leading to a more influential and consolidated European Union. Each former Soviet Republic in Eastern Europe elects for an independent and democratic government. Newly-independent republics include Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova, Czechoslovakia and Russian Federation (the dominant republic in the former USSR).

Soviet Military Response to Break-Away Republics (1991): The Soviet Army attempts to suppress independence movements, but further damages their authority as several are killed, creating public relations backlash.

Attempted Coup within Soviet Union (1991): Most soviet republics were in favor of maintaining the Soviet Union, but with greater decentralization and local autonomy. Key members of Gorbachev's cabinet were appalled by the weakening of central authority, and staged a coup, placing Gorbachev under house arrest, and hoping to rally public support in their favor. However, popular opinion was largely against the stance, and protested the coup. The coup organizers were forced to surrender themselves. Despite returning to office as Head of State, Gorbachev was now impotent as a leader, as his leadership had been completely undermined.

Dismantling of the USSR (1991): After the failed coup, individual republics began to operate with complete autonomy, taking possession of Soviet property on their territory. The USSR recognized independence of the three Baltic states (Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia). When Russian President Yelstin moved to disband the Soviet Union, removing Gorbachev from power, he was largely supported by the Russian populace. Ukraine and Belarus also supported the move. Only 5 of the 15 republics sign off on this.

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Official Dissolution of the USSR (1991): After all the republics had ratified the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December, Gorbachev resigned, acknowledging the end of the union.

Sweden Economic Crisis (1991): Sweden descended into a deep recession, due to softening of the international markets, the collapse of the Soviet Union, and the depression that took root in neighboring Finland. The recession would plague Sweden throughout the remainder of the 1990s.

Beginning of Yugoslavia Wars (1991): Began with demonstrations in Kosovo (region within Serbia) by Albanians, which resulted in counter demonstrations by Kosovo Serbs, a minority in Kosovo. Serbs were the dominant ethnic group within Yugoslavia throughout its history. The Serb-dominated Yugoslavian government simply takes the side of the Serbs. Finding continued Serb dominance and oppression unacceptable, Slovenia, Croatia, Macedonia and Bosnia & Herzegovina separate from Yugoslavia, claiming independence. Serbia becomes Serbia and Montenegro (named the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia). Serbia encouraged Serb revolts within these newly-claimed independent regions.

Further Understanding: Reasons for Yugoslavia's Collapse

1. Economic Issues: After the fall of the USSR, western nations, including the U.S., implemented trade barriers against Yugoslavia, which still had a communist government. During the Cold War, Yugoslavia refused to ally with the Soviet Union, inviting concessions from western nations, in hopes of keeping Yugoslavia out from under Soviet influence and control. Without this incentive, western nations became economically hostile toward Yugoslavia, badly damaging the once thriving economy.
2. Ethnic Divides: Yugoslavia is comprised of several ethnic groups which only consolidated into a unified nation after WWI. Serbia had long been the dominant South Slav ethnic group, going back to the Middle Ages, and continued to assert itself as the dominant partner in the nation of Yugoslavia. Serb-biased policy sparked ethnic tensions within Yugoslavia, which became especially evident with the falling economy.
3. Increased Autonomy for Ethnic Groups: By the early 1990s, most ethnic groups demanded increased autonomy, in response to Serb hegemony. The Serbia-dominant government was forced to concede. Increased autonomy led to demands for independence. Serbs then fought fiercely to maintain centralized rule over its fellow South Slav brethren.

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10-Day War in Slovenia - Part of Yugoslavia Wars (1991): First armed conflict in Yugoslav Wars is between the Serb-controlled federal army and the Slovenes. Slovenes withstood the Serbs, ensuring independence.

Independence from Yugoslavia for Macedonia (1991): Macedonia's declaration of independence unchallenged by Yugoslavia. In 2001, ethnic Albanians attempt to carve out an Albanian nation within Macedonia, potentially to be combined with Albanian-dominated Kosovo. Macedonia's army successfully extinguishes the threat.

Croatian War of Independence - Part of Yugoslavia Wars (1991-95): Croatian declaration of independence invites armed response by Yugoslavian Army from Serbia and ethnic Serbs inside Croatia. Atrocities against civilians are committed by both sides. Croatia secured independence in the conflict. UN troops were sent in to protect Serb populations.

Finland Economic Depression (1991-95): When the Soviet Union collapsed, Finland lost its most important trade partner overnight. It did not recover until joining the European Union in 1995.

Bosnian War of Independence - Part of Yugoslavia Wars (1992-95): The war spread to Bosnia in 1992, the bloodiest and most covered part of Yugoslavia Wars. It staged the Bosnian Muslims against the Bosnian Serbs. The Bosnian Croats fought against the Serbs as well, but also fought against the Muslims on occasion. Atrocities werre committed by all sides, but Bosnian Muslims were victimized the most, and a large number of Muslim civilians were killed by Bosnian Serbs. The UN and NATO also participated at various times, often switching sides. In 1995, the international-brokered end to the war established an independent Bosnia & Herzegovina, the most ethnically-mixed of all the former-Yugoslavia nations. Croat, Serb, Muslim and mixed zones were established to ensure fair representation for all sects.

Russian Constitutional Crisis (1993): The Parliament opposed Yelstin’s rapid privatization policies (termed "shock therapy"). They voted to depose Yelstin as President of Russia, but Yelstin calls in the special forces to have dissenting Parliamentary members detained, resulting in riots. Yeltsin managed to maintain power, but Parliament is no longer relevant, as Yelstin uses the incident to push through a new constitution dictating a much stronger office of presidency, and a diminished Parliament.

European Union Established (1993): The removal of the iron curtain allowed for cooperation among all European states. Eastern states were now able to be connected with the western world, opening up new opportunities for commerce and diplomacy. The larger objective for the EU is to avoid continental wars that had been historically endemic and catastrophic. The Cold War represented another potential great war, so with the end of this threat, European nations aimed for closer cooperation and integration, to prevent tensions that led to wide-spread war throughout the continent in the past. European states also realized other potential benefits of increased cohesion. Europe had long been a continent subdivided among several nations, as opposed to Russia and the United States (and now emerging China), which are massive, consolidated states, bringing populations far greater than that of any single European state under one banner. The EU now represented a way for Europeans to potentially compete more directly with such super powers.

Split-Up of Czechoslovakia (1993): After attaining complete sovereignty as a nation with the collapse of the Soviet Union, Slovaks in Czechoslovakia call for greater autonomy in the Czech-led nation. This resulted in the peaceful split of the nation into the Czech Republic and the Republic of Slovakia.

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First Chechen War (1994-96): When the Russian republic of Chechnya attempted to break away from the Federation, Russia mobilized its army to assert control. Chechen rebels waged a guerilla war, which turned public opinion against the war in Russia, forcing Russia to withdraw and cede de-facto independence to Chechnya in 1996.

Russian Financial Crisis (1998): The global recession of 1998 was especially damaging for Russia, whose economy was/is dependent upon the export of raw materials. Russia would experience a financial collapse, as the government became unable to collect enough tax revenues to pay off loans and and to pay its employees. The economy recovered very quickly in 1999 and 2000, as energy costs skyrocketed, resulting in a large trade surplus and cash reserve.

Kosovo War - Part of Yugoslavia Wars (1998-99): The majority ethnic-Albanians in the region of Kosovo begin a separatist movement against Yugoslavia. Serbia sent troops into Kosovo to re-assert control. After evidence of brutal civilian killings are uncovered, NATO undertakes a bombing campaign against Serbia to force it to withdraw, which it does in 1999. NATO maintains peacekeeping forces in Kosovo. Kosovo remains an autonomous province of Serbia/Yugoslavia. This paves the way for Kosovo independence in 2008, protested by Serbia, which was powerless to prevent it.

Vladimir Putin Rises to Russian Presidency (1999): Vladimir Putin was appointed president by Boris Yeltsin, who resigned his post. This placed Putin as the frontrunner for the 2000 elections, in which he achieved victory. Putin would be fortunate to serve during a time of strong economic growth in Russia, primarily due to rising global energy prices, upon which Russia is highly dependent as a major energy producer. Putin would take a strong stance against the oligarchs (entrepreneurs that took advantage of the rapid privatization after the USSR collapse, collecting massive assets, becoming extraordinarily wealthy, yet hated). Putin had many imprisoned and exiled, with the state taking possession of their assets. Putin has also attempted to reassert Russian dominance in former bloc countries such as Belarus and Ukraine, an effort which has been fairly successful by withholding desparately-needed natural gas from Europe.

Second Chechen War (1999-Present): In 1999, Chechen militants carried out multiple invasions and terrorist acts into Russia, eliciting an invasion by Russia into Chechnya. By 2000, Russia had reasserted control over Chechnya, but the conflict persists as rebels continue to wage guerilla war against Russia's army units.

Sept. 11 Attacks in U.S. (2001): Fanatical Muslims hijack four commercial air planes, flying two into the World Trade Center Twin Towers in New York City, and one into the Pentagon in Washington. The fourth was overrun by passengers, and failed to reach its intended target of the Capitol Building in DC, crashing in Pennsylvania.

(Timeline Continued Below)

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Note: 9-11 Effect on Europe. The attacks propelled the U.S. into a "War on Terrorism", which would have impact on Europe, drawing several European nations into cooperation with the U.S.-led campaign against fanatical Islamic groups throughout the world, such as al-Qaeda. The primary theaters would be Iraq and Afghanistan, both pre-emptively invaded by the U.S.-dominated coalition, but with the support of several European nations. European nations such as the UK and Spain would invite Islamic-motivated terrorist attacks on their own soil in retaliation for their part in the war.

van Gogh Murder in Amsterdam (2004): Theo van Gogh became a controversial figure in the Islamic world after releasing his film "Submission", the story of four abused women. The film represented Islam in a negative light, especially in regards to the treatment of women. On Nov. 2, van Gogh was shot to death and mutilated by a Muslim radical in response to his anti-Muslim stance. Tensions between Dutch and Islamic immigrants became palpable in the aftermath of the murder.

Madrid, Spain Commuter Rail Terrorist Bombings (2004): Three days before the general elections in Spain, a series of coordinated bombs were detonated along the commuter rail system, killing 191 and injuring 1,755. The incumbent party, which supported the U.S.-sponsored "War on Terror" and Iraq War, held a narrow lead in the polls before the bombings. After the bombings, the opposing party took the lead, winning the election, and withdrawing Spanish combat forces from the Iraq War.

London Train Terrorist Bombings (2005): Fanatical Muslims carried out a coordinated, suicide attack on London underground trains on July 7, killing 52. The motivation was to seek retribution for the UK's role in the Iraq and Afghanistan Wars.

Montenegro Independence from Serbia/Yugoslavia (2006): Montenegro secedes from Serbia, dissolving the reconstituted Yugoslavia state established after most other regions had gained independence.

Evolution of an Independent Serbia (2006): Serbia was the dominant state within Yugoslavia, and ethnic Serbs fought fiercely to keep it together. Slovenia successfully won independence in 1991. Bosnia and Croatia earned independence during bloody wars ending in 1995. Macedonia seceded peacefully in 1991. In 1992, Serbia and Montenegro formed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, which was dissolved in 2006, when Montenegro voted in favor of independence. Serbia acknowledged the result, and declared its own independence immediately after. Since the Kosovo War in 1998-99, Kosovo has operated as an autonomous state, officially declaring independence in 2008. Serbia protested, but was unable to forcibly restore control, since UN peacemaking troops are still in place. Several nations have recognized Kosovo independence.

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Kosovo Officially Secedes from Serbia/Yugoslavia to Become Independent (2008).

Basque Separatist Movement (2008): Basque peoples in the Autonomous Basque region of Spain have recently carried out sporadic acts of violence in an attempt to become a completely sovereign nation, independent of Spain and France. Basque people have long maintained a separate sense of cultural identity, going back to before Roman, and even War in Georgia ancient Celt conquests of the Iberian peninsula. Although Basque Country has largely been a peaceful part of Spain (with a smaller portion extending into France) for decades, Basque citizens have been encouraged by recent secession movements in 2008, such as Kosovo from Serbia, and South Ossetia from Georgia.

Russia Invades Georgia (2008): Separatists in South Ossetia and Abkhazia, traditionally backed by Russia, begin an armed insurgency against Georgia, which maintained control over the two regions. In the aftermath of the Kosovo separation from Serbia, Russia felt empowered to support these separatist movements, knowing the international community, which largely favored Kosovo's secession, would have little ground to stand on against the move. In which case, Russia sent troops to expel Georgian troops from the two regions, after which it recognized the two new independent republics (existing under strong Russian influence of course). Despite tough rhetoric by western nations, Russia was not militarily opposed in this endeavor.

Further Understanding of Recent Era

2007-09 Global Financial Crisis:

What it is: Global recession characterized by falling financial markets, housing markets and tightened credit availability and liquidity circulation.
Causes: The boom economic environment of the first half of the 2000s led to lax lending practices, which further fueled growth initially. As assets and financial products became over-inflated in value, a backlash in the market brought about a bust trend, as housing values, stocks and other financial assets came crashing down in value.
Sparked by the Housing Bubble/Subprime Crisis: A strong-growth housing market opened the way for riskier mortgage products, namely subprime mortgage loans. When increased foreclosures occurred worldwide, a disproportionate number of homes flooded the market, applying downward pressure on housing prices. Decreasing prices created more foreclosures, which placed an even a greater glutton of homes on the market. This downward spiral was also further exasperated by rapidly tightening lending practices, a direct response to over-exposure to the sinking housing market. This added even more momentum to the downward spiral by shrinking the pool of potential buyers. These subprime loans were bundled into security products made available on financial markets. They became so widespread, nearly every investment firm and bank in the western world (U.S. and Europe in particular) were highly vested. The crash in the housing market resulted in a precipitous drop in investment values, bringing a large number of banks and investment firms on the brink of failure (many did indeed fail), causing a crash in the financial system as well. In which case, the economic troubles became systemic, seeping into virtually all sectors of the worldwide economy. Naturally, consumer demand contracted substantially in the U.S. and abroad, accelerating a domino effect that has affected virtually every nation. Eastern Europe nations are in an especially difficult position, as their housing boom was largely financed by foreign lending institutions, such as those in Switzerland. As local currencies fell sharply in value (especially in comparison to the Swiss Franc), loans have become almost impossible to repay.

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European Union Criticisms and Controversies:

Main criticism of the EU is that it compromises the sovereignty of each individual nation, lessening rights of their respective voting constituencies. EU policies are not voted on by citizens, but by appointed national leaders, yet become part of law applicable within each member nation. On the other hand, citizens indirectly affect EU policy through public opinion within their own nation. If the voting public is dissatisfied with its nations involvement with the EU, they can vote accordingly. The main reason why Norway and Switzerland are not members is that neither is fully willing to comply with certain EU requirements. In Norway's case, it is not prepared to conform its all-important fishing industry to EU standards/regulation. Switzerland is resistant to modifying bank regulations which have made the Swiss banking system conducive to tax evasion schemes. Currently, the most controversial candidacy is that of Turkey, an associate member of EC/EU since the 60s. Turkey has cooperated economically and militarily with the EU. The key arguments in favor include the fact that it is a highly developed nation, with an advanced economy and military. It is also in a strategically important geopolitical position, with an ability to form a bridge between Europe and the Middle East, facilitating greater influence on such an important yet volatile region. Arguments against Turkey include some of its undemocratic policies which are still in place. There are also concerns about a large Muslim population affecting the balance of power in Europe.

European Union Origins: The EU traces its origins back to the original example of such cooperation: the European Coal and Steel Community. It initially included France, West Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg. It created a common market for steel and coal (no custom restrictions between countries, common regulations). Their rationale was that war required steel and coal, and if the industries were governed together, then war between member nations could be prevented, due to common interest in these staple industries. By 1967, it also included a customs union (free movement of people between borders), and cooperation in developing nuclear energy. It then went under name of European Community. By the 80s, Denmark, Ireland, UK, Portugal, Greece and Spain became members. Upon the fall of the Iron Curtain, the organization changed its name (EU) and expanded its scope. Cooperation up to this point had proven very promising, and potential was seen for a pan-European federation, to increase leverage in the world, and to maintain peaceful relations among each other, as a result of common interests.

European Union Membership Requirements: In order to join the EU, nations must be democratic, willing/able to be part of EU's free market economy, while achieving other social, political standards set forth by the EU. It is still too early to truly judge how effective the EU has been in achieving these primary objectives (fostering peace, increasing leverage in the world). The single market economy certainly has facilitated trade and commerce within Europe (free movement of people, capital, goods, services).

Re-Emergence of Russia from 1999 - 2008:

Soviet Union Infrastructure: The Soviet Union collapsed due to economic and social reasons. However, massive military arsenal and civic infrastructure was inherited by the Russia Federation, formed directly following the downfall of the USSR. Once Russia stabilized, it was able to crank up the old Soviet machinery, still available after an epic build-up as part of the Cold War.
Belarus: It is suspected that Russia has played a part in helping pro-Russian, authoritarian president Lukashenko become elected.
Natural Gas Disputes: Russia has deterred the "west" from expanding its influence over former Soviet Republics such as Ukraine, by withholding natural gas exports from Europe when desparately needed to heat homes and buildings during the winter months. This energy hijacking tactic has helped to keep Ukraine under the influence of Russia, and out of NATO.
South Ossetia War: In 2008, Russia pushed back against the "west" after western governments recognized the independence of Kosovo from Serbia, a move not desired by Russia. When conflict arose in the Georgia break-away republic of South Ossetia, Russia took the opportunity to step in, helping South Ossetia to earn independence from the former Soviet Republic of Georgia. Western governments supported Georgia's desire to retain possession of South Ossetia. Now, South Ossetia is under Russian influence.
Nationalizing Industry: Under Putin, Russia has overturned significant acts of privatization, re-nationalizing several companies, including oil company TNK-BP, a joint venture with Russia and the UK's BP. Such moves discourage foreign investment, but strengthen the power of the central government. Strengthened central power was a greater priority for Russia than endearing itself to the international investment community.
Cash Build-Up: Russia benefitted tremendously during the oil rally between 1999 and 2008, building a large cash reserve. When oil prices tanked in 2008, Russia had sufficient liquidity to remain powerful. It is also able to shake down the oligarchs for more cash, with the threat that it will be forcibly extricated from them if necessary. Such tactics make foreign investors uncomfortable, but Russia prefers tight control over the operation of the state than creating a comfortable environment for investors. Unlike the U.S., Russia possesses comparatively limited natural resources (aside from oil and natural gas) and unfavorable geography/climate. In which case, careful state planning is necessary to avoid catastrophe, making capitalistic policies a risky proposition in Russia.

Russian Natural Gas Disputes: Since Russia has begun to re-insert itself as a regional and global power over the past decade, it has used its natural gas exports as a lever against Europe and Ukraine in particular. Currently, Europe is heavily reliant upon Russian natural gas. Most of it flows through Ukraine. As disputes have risen with Ukraine in recent years (with Ukraine on the cusp of becoming pro-western) and with Europe in general (by expanding their influence into former Soviet Republics, historically an important buffer for Russia), Russia has been able to submit Ukraine and Europe to its will be cutting off natural gas supply.

2008 Status for Each Country

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