Europe's Darkest Days, 1240

Detailed Timeline of European History

Crusades (1050-1240) << Europe's Darkest Days (1240-1350) >> Renaissance (1350-1505)

Europe's Darkest Days (1240 - 1350)
Famines, Plagues, Mongol Invasions, Loss of the Holy Land

Mongol Conquest of the Kumans (1241): The Golden Horde brings the end of the Turkic empire of the Kumans. The Turkic Kumans would remain part of the Mongol Empire for centuries, representing the majority of the population. By the time the Mongol Empire comes to an end by 1502, the Mongols had been assimilated into the Turkic population in the region.

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Mongol Rule of Russia (1241-45): Most of the Rus people from the former Kievan Rus are conquered by the Mongol Empire (gray shaded area), which originated in Mongolia, expanding into Eastern Europe. The Mongols capture multitudes of Slavs, selling them into Asia as slaves.

Ukrainians participate in Mongol raids of Poland and Hungary, gaining territory as a Mongol vassal state.

Further Understanding:
Why Golden Horde able to Dominate Eastern Europe.

As a nomadic people, the Mongols were forced west from their central Asian home territory due to unusually dry weather. They were highly dependent upon trade, and as agriculture suffered in Asia, they moved west to greener pastures.
Superior Military Technology. A result of exposure to various methods, thanks to their nomadic lifestyle. This included superior horsemanship skills and superior bows.
Strengthening Numbers. They were also effective at increasing their ranks as they passed through conquered territories, since they forced defeated peoples to join and fight with them or die. They would slaughter all defeated peoples that would not go along with them. Therefore, they were a frightening power by the time they entered the gateway to Europe through Southern Russia. The Rus people were submitted to their rule, but with a fair amount of autonomy, although steep taxes & tribute were extracted.
Learned Diplomacy. They had also grown to dominate the northern trade route from Europe to Asia, contributing greatly to their wealth and sophistication, as they became learned in other aspects besides just military, including science and government philosophies, which enhanced their ability to diplomatically appease conquered peoples.
Europe's Weakened Condition. Their timing was also fortunate, as their arrival coincided with the Black Death plague, severely weakening all of Europe. It may have been the Mongols that actually introduced the plague.

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Note: Last of the Nomadic/Barbaric Large-Scale Conquests. The Mongol Golden Horde would be the last nomadic people to run roughshod over Europe, as nations continue to consolidate, improving defenses. Nomadic migrations and raids had beset Europe since days of Roman Empire. Mongols devastated Europe, conquering large parts of Eastern Europe and passing along the cataclysmic Black Death.

Swedish Conquests of Finland (1250): Sweden launches crusades against the Finnish people (modern Finland), sanctioned by the pope due to the region’s rebellion against the church’s authority. Sweden conquers much of the Finnish territory, incorporating these lands into its kingdom.

Establishment of Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1253 - 1350): The first officially unified Lithuanian government (a consolidation of Baltic tribes). As the independent German Teutonic Knights captured Balt lands along the Baltic Sea, the Balt sphere of power shifts deeper inland, swallowing former Kievan Rus peoples and lands.

Greeks Reconquest of Byzantine (1261): Greeks reconquer Constantinople from the pope-backed Latin Empire, but damage is done, as Byzantine is already in an irreversible decline.

Greenland is settled and added to the Kingdom of Norway (1261).

Byzantine Empire Iceland is also settled and added to the Kingdom of Norway (1262).

Balearic Islands Conquered by Hispania Christians from Muslims (1262): Balearic Islands conquered by Christian Kingdom of Aragon.

Seedlings of Democracy in England (1265): England gives Europe its first elected parliament (De Montfort’s Parliament), although only a small minority are given a voice. Nonetheless, it serves as the forerunner to truly democratic forms of government that slowly take root throughout Europe in the centuries to follow, especially Western Europe. The democratic movement is led by England in particular.

Angevin (French County) Conquers Sicily from Holy Roman Empire (1266): Charles of Anjou (province of France) is invited by the pope to capture the Kingdom of Sicily from the Germans, due to the pope's bitter feud with German kings.

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Dawn of Hapsburg Rule in Austria (1278): Hapsburgs become ruling family of Austria, which would last 640 years, vastly expanding their territory and power during that time, eventually becoming the Holy Roman Emperors.

Hungary Gives Territory to Serbia (1282): As dowry for dynastic marriage, Hungary gives a large chunk of territory (modern Northern Serbia) to the monarch of Serbia.

Spanish-Friendly Sicily (1282): Sicily successfully rebels against the French (Angevins) with help from "Hispania" Aragon Kingdom, separating Sicily from the mainland. The mainland became known as the Kingdom of Naples. The Kingdom of Sicily was ruled by relatives of King of Aragon, making it friendly with Aragon.

English Conquest of Wales (1283): Edward I of England has a territorial dispute with the King of Wales, providing impetus to conquer all of Wales. Wales falls under English control, but ruled as a separate political entity with some autonomy. It is forced to pay taxes to England, operate under English oversight, serve English foreign policy, etc. Welsh would stage several revolts throughout 14th century, but would ultimately be defeated in each case, remaining under English control for most part throughout the rest of time, eventually being fully integrated into England in 1535, then later Great Britain and the United Kingdom.

End of Crusader States (1291): Kingdoms and Counties established in the Middle East by crusading Christian armies are reconquered by Muslims, aided by divisions amongst Christian crusader occupants.

Old Swiss Confederacy (1291): Provinces in modern Switzerland break away from Habsburg rule, forming the Old Swiss Confederacy, a collection of affiliated “cantons” (provinces). It is the forerunner to the modern nation of Switzerland. They remain loosely associated with the Holy Roman Empire.

English Conquest of Scotland (1293): England invades & conquers Scotland (Kingdom of Alba). The Scottish Wars of Independence begin almost immediately. Scotland gains independence from England in 1328, but is reconquered in 1337.

Hispania Kingdom Conquers Corsica & Sardinia from Muslims (1296-97): The two large Mediterranean islands are conquered by Aragon, conquests which are sanctioned by the Pope in Rome.

Note: Beginning of England's Rise. England begins to establish itself as super power, expanding into Scotland, and imposing its will upon France. Serves as a forbearance of things to come, where England would eventually rise to the position as the premiere European & world power.

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Ottoman Conquests of Asia Minor (1299-1350): After their birth in 1299, the Ottoman Turks (small Muslim emirate just east of Byzantine) began capturing Byzantine territories, nearly driving them completely out of Asia Minor (modern Turkey) by 1350.

Beginning of Ottoman Empire (1299): Osman I (after whom the Turkic empire was named) begins to capture small territory in western Anatolia. The Ottomans would then enlarge territory throughout western Anatolia, taking territory from other Turkic tribes and the Byzantines. They proceeded to form a government that enabled religious and ethnic minorities to manage their own affairs with partial autonomy, which would be a key to the growth of the empire, as the Ottoman Turks proved adept at taking diverse peoples and unifying them under one banner/cause (Islam). This is also how they succeeded in their conquests, by attracting nomadic warriors in the region (including Turkish tribes with a nomadic history and remnants of the Mongols in the region) under the ideology of Holy War against non-believers (Byzantines, Christians). It was preached that it was their duty (and glory) to fight against the infidels. Plus, those joining the Ottoman banner were handsomely awarded with spoils from the wealthy Byzantine cities they conquered. Bursa would be captured in 1326, serving as the capital, and the rest of Byzantine Anatolia (modern Turkey) was conquered soon after (around 1330). By the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire would cover most of Southeast Europe, the Middle East and North Africa.

Balt Lands Conquered Germans (1308): German Duchy of Bradenburg expands to the east, conquering the Balts in this territory in the name of Christianity, taking possession of their lands. The future German Kingdom of "Prussia" would be named after the Balt tribe that inhabited the region.

Poland Loses Territory to German Teutonic Knights (1308): The Teutonic Knights were hired by a Polish Duke to reclaim territory captured by the German (Holy Roman Empire) principality of Brandenburg. When the Duke failed to pay the knights, they purchased rights from Brandenburg, and assumed control of the Polish "corridor" to the Baltic Sea. This cuts Poland off from the sea access, giving the knightly order a land bridge to the rest of the Holy Roman Empire. Therefore, it was able to better protect their territorial possessions. Poland would continue to wage war against the Teutonic Knights until 1343, in an attempt to recapture the lost territory.

French Pope (1309): Papal office comes under control of France, even moving to France.

Great Famine (1315-1317): Unusually bad weather in the spring of 1315 resulted in mass crop failures throughout Europe. It was the most severe of a multitude of famines that struck throughout Europe during the 14th century, causing the death of several million. It also resulting in high levels of criminal activity, murder, disease and even cannibalism. On the other hand, wars were interrupted. Harsh weather in a time when population numbers had exploded was the main cause, as crops failed, and the large populations could no longer be sustained.

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Wallachia Independence from Hungary (1330): Romanians east of Hungary revolt, breaking away from Hungary to form the Kingdom of Wallachia.

Beginning of Hundred Years' War Between England and France (1337): England invaded Scotland again (as it is a French ally), ending its independence. France initiates the war when it uses this as an opportunity to capture England's possession of Gascony, located in the SW corner of France.

Buffer Territory Established by Hungary (1342): With weakening of Tatar (Turkish/Horde) rule in modern Moldova, Hungary sends force to establish buffer against nomadic warriors from the east, conquering the region.

Territory Purchased by German Teutonic Knights from Danish (1346): Danish sell rebellious province of Estonia (northern half of modern Estonia) to Teutonic Knights. It had proven to be more trouble to the Danish than what it was worth to them.

Black Death (Bubonic Plague) Hits Europe (1347): It killed an estimated 75 million, roughly half the European population. The majority of deaths occurred between 1347 and 1351. In the southern regions such as Italy and southern France, the percentage was probably higher (up to 80%), while lower in the north. Black Death was caused by a bacterium found in rats in Central Asia. It was introduced to the Arab and European worlds by invading Mongols. Mongols introduced it directly through Eastern Europe through invasion, while southern Europe was infected from interaction with Arabs and Mongols in coastal areas, through trade and conflict. From these points of contact, it spread throughout Europe. Europeans were especially vulnerable, due to overpopulation, along with a series of famines in the early 14th century, resulting in a dense population with weakened immune systems. Large cities were inflicted even greater, due to denser populations and unsanitary conditions which were typical. Black Death would continue to reoccur in Europe, although on a much smaller scale, until disappearing completely in the 19th century.

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Further Understanding: Social Consequences of Black Death Plague

Increased Persecution of the Jews. Jews were often targeted, since people were at a loss to explain the plague. Entire Jewish settlements were exterminated in some cases. Ethnic hatred was the underlying factor, flared by these frustrating times. Comparatively fewer Jews perished, so it was seen by many as a Jewish conspiracy, or a curse from God for allowing Jews into their lands. In reality, Jewish settlements were typically isolated, and Jews typically possessed better hygiene, due to religious practices. However, this was not understood at the time, since micro-organisms were yet to be discovered.
Peasant Revolts. Due to the inability of governments to solve the plague, peasant revolts became common. Monarchs & nobles compounded matters by instituting wage controls, despite the fact that wages should have increased due to a shortage of labor supply.
Papal Authority Weakens. The Church was powerless to stop the plague, since viruses were not yet understood by humanity. Black Death was seen as a curse instead. Promises and predictions were unfulfilled, while prayers and devotion to the church did nothing to even slow the rampant disease and death. This contributed to philosophical questioning and critical analysis of life, and the world.
Lower-Class Leverage & Enlightenment. During the initial years, when the death toll was at its worst, it was commonly believed that the world was literally coming to and end. This is very understandable, as modern people would feel the same way if half the population died over the course of a few years. However, survivors and their posterity would go on to actually thrive in the post-Black Death world, serving as a stark reminder that life marches on. Peasants would eventually benefit from higher wages due to the labor supply shortage. It would play a part in the Renaissance and Enlightenment, as people would dare question and challenge sacred institutions such as the Church and the King. People would seek academic knowledge in place of superstition, which proved useless during the plague.

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Poland Conquers Galacia from Ukrainians (1349): Poles conquer Galicia from the Ukrainians, ending their sovereignty as an independent principality.

Note: France Regains Territory from Holy Roman Empire. France brings various counties back under the French crown, consolidating historical "France Proper".

Note: Muslim Kingdom Minimized in Hispania. The Christian Kingdoms continue to chip away at the Muslim Kingdom of Granada. Yet, Granada continues to cooperate with northern kingdoms, as it is hopelessly overpowered, and exists only at their mercy.

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