Russia/Russians: Development of a Nation
How Russia became Russia, and how the Russians became Russian.

How Russians as a people, and the country of Russia as a nation-state, evolved and materialized into current form, in terms of ancestral bloodlines, the Russian language, borders, culture, and even how they received their name.

Ancestral Background
Development of Language
Formation of Borders
Etymology (How Name Received)
Culture
Russia in 2008

Russian Ancestral Background:
 

1. 3000 BC – The Proto-Balto-Slavic population (based on speakers of the Proto-Balto-Slavic language) materialized around modern Lithuania.
2. Around 1000 BC, a group splinters from the Proto-Baltic-Slavic people near the shores of the Baltic Sea (centered around modern Lithuania). This group becomes the Slavic people, settling around modern Ukraine. After becoming a distinct people, they begin to spread in all directions.
3. By 750 BC, a group splintered off, migrating west, becoming ancestors to the modern Poles, Czechs and Slovaks, forever being separated and distinct from those that would remain in the original homeland, who would become known as the East Slavs, the predecessors to the modern Ukrainians, Russians and Belarusians.
4. 1-200 AD: Dacians (a sub-branch from the ancient Thracians, who inhabited the eastern Balkan peninsula in ancient times) inhabited western Ukraine. They were eventually absorbed by the Slavs in the region, leaving a minor genetic imprint on Ukrainian people.
5. In the 6th century, another group of Slavs would splinter from the original group centered around modern Ukraine, diffused east toward Russia and north toward modern Belarus. This branch would migrate south into the Balkan peninsula, filling the void left by the migrating Germanic peoples, who had evacuated the region for crumbling Roman lands to the west. This Balkan Slavic group would become known as the South Slavs, and would become forever separated and distinct from the East Slavs after groups such as the migrating Magyars (predecessors to modern Hungarians) settled between them.
6. 860 – A Swedish Viking tribe migrated south into modern Kiev (Ukraine), subduing the Slavs in the area, founding the loosely organized Rus Khaganate, the predecessor to the Kievan Rus’ state.
7. By the 10th century, the Rus Khaganate had evolved from a Swedish-ruled state to a purely Slavic nation, known as Kievan Rus. The Swedish Vikings had been completely absorbed into the local populace by this point, adding another trace element to the Ukrainian genetic composition. The Kievan Rus became the premiere Eastern European power, dominating trade routes from Baltic to Black Sea, and from the Khazar Kingdom in the east to the Germanic states to the west.
8. After about 100 years of civil war within the Kievan Rus, the consolidated East Slav state finally fractured into three principle successor states around 1150: Novgorod Republic, Vladimir-Suzdal Principality and the Kingdom of Halych-Volynia. Vladimir-Suzdal and Novgorod would later combine to form the Grand Duchy of Moscow (the predecessor to Russia), and Halych-Volynia would later evolve into Ukraine. Another group of former Kievan Rus Slavs in the northwest portion of the former kingdom would be absorbed into the Kingdom of Lithuania. This group was the predecessor to the modern Belarusians.
9. Multiple Turkic peoples migrated into modern Southern Russia throughout Dark Ages, including the Khazars (whose kingdom collapsed in 1016), the Kumans (1050 -1241), and the Mongols/Golden Horde from 1241 to about 1440. After the collapse of the Golden Horde, the Turks continued as a collection of small Turkic khans in modern Southern Russia until the Ottoman conquest of 1526. The Ottomans were a Muslim, Turkic confederation that would dominate southeast Europe and the Middle East from the 14th century until the early 20th century.
10. Russia conquered southern Russia from the Ottoman Turks by 1774, but a substantial Turkic population remained in the region, which would largely be driven out and/or assimilated by the Russians from that point forth, leaving a minor trace in the Russian genetic composition.
11. Despite non-Slavic elements added to their genetic pool over the centuries, Russians are of primarily East Slav descent.

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Development of Russian Language:
 

1. 3000 BC – The Proto-Balto-Slavic language (branch of Proto-Indo-European) is spoken by Proto-Balto-Slavic group centered around Lithuania.
2. After a split in the Proto-Balto-Slavic nation around 1000 BC, the language of those that migrate east and south evolves into Slavic (thus the origin of Slavic peoples). The language of those that remain in the Baltic region evolves into Baltic.
3. By approximately the 9^th century, the Slavic language in the Kievan Rus kingdom evolves into Old East Slavic. Several dialects of this language develop during existence of Kievan Rus.
4. Kievan Rus splinters into multiple states in the 12^th century due to civil war. The Eastern territories (including Moscow) come under rule of Mongols by 13^th century, creating partition between eastern and western territories of former Kievan Rus state, causing Belarus and Ukrainian languages to develop in isolation from what would become Russian.
5. By 14^th century, Ukraine and Belarus were conquered by Lithuania, further isolating the evolution of their language from the Russian language spoken by East Slavs centered around modern Moscow and surrounding regions. This "eastern" East Slav variation would be the basis for modern Russia, while the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages would evolving along a divergent path.

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Formation of Russian Borders:
 

1. 860 – A Swedish Viking tribe migrated south into modern Kiev (Ukraine), subduing the Slavs in the area, forming the loosely organized Rus Khaganate, a Swedish-ruled political entity among the East Slavs (predecessors to modern Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians).
2. By the 10th century, the Rus Khaganate had evolved from a Swedish-ruled state to a purely Slavic nation, known as Kievan Rus. The Kievan Rus became the premiere Eastern European power, dominating trade routes from Baltic to Black Sea, and from the Khazar Kingdom in the east to the Germanic states to the west.
3. 1016 – Collapse of Khazar Kingdom as a result of military defeats at the hands of the Kievan Rus. Kievan Rus expanded southward.
4. 1050 – Kumans (aka Kipchaks), a Turkic tribe from central Asia, migrated west, conquering the southern part of modern Ukraine.
5. After about 100 years of civil war within the Kievan Rus, the consolidated East Slav state finally fractured into three principle successor states around 1150: Novgorod Republic, Vladimir-Suzdal Principality and the Kingdom of Halych-Volynia. Vladimir-Suzdal and Novgorod would later combine to form the Grand Duchy of Moscow (the predecessor to Russia), and Halych-Volynia would later evolve into Ukraine. Another group of former Kievan Rus Slavs in the northwest portion of the former kingdom would be absorbed into the Kingdom of Lithuania. This group was the predecessor to the modern Belarusians.
6. 1241 – The Mongol Empire (Golden Horde) conquered the Kipchak/Kuman Empire. The Golden Horde advanced as far as the eastern edges of Austria, submitting Poland and Hungary. They also conquered the Rus principalities. They retreated from their outermost territories when Genghis Khan died, which split the Mongol Empire among his four sons. The western portion that encompassed eastern Europe, including the Rus principalities (Ukraine, Belarus, Russia) is referred to as the Golden Horde. Turkics (Kipchaks) comprised the majority of the constituency in modern Southern Russia, but the Mongols were the ruling class throughout all of modern Russia, Ukraine and Belarus.
7. 1245 – The Mongol Empire (Golden Horde) conquered the southeast corner of Halych-Volynia (successor state of Kievan Rus, predecessor to modern Ukraine). This was followed by a period where the Ukraines would work with the Mongols, participating in raids into Poland and Hungary, gaining territory for themselves, but also entering in ongoing territorial battles against Poles and Hungarians. Ukrainians would largely be successful until about 1300, when the tide would turn against them.
8. 1307 – Lithuania conquered the Principality of Polotsk (Rus), consisting of northern-central Belarus.
9. 1323 – Lithuanians gained control of the Volynia portion of the Ukrainian state.
10. 1349 – Poles conquered Galicia from the Ukrainians, ending their sovereignty.
11. 1385 – A merger between Poland and Lithuania formed the Polish-Lithuanian Union. The two kingdoms still operated independently, but formed a defensive alliance against the Germanic Teutonic Knights and Moscow, common threats to both. It included large portions of both modern Belarus and Ukraine.
12. 1440 – The Golden Horde broke up into several Khanates (Turkic principalities and petty kingdomds) in modern Southern Russia/Ukraine due to civil war, which had been ongoing since the Black Death of 1340.
13. 1475 – The Crimean Khanate of modern Southern Ukraine came under control of the Ottoman empire, but maintained partial autonomy.
14. 1478 – The Grand Duchy of Moscow (Rus principality under Turkic control) conquered the Novgorod Republic (another Rus principality) to the north. Although Moscow was now substantially enlarged, it was still only loosely consolidated, with various princes retaining semi-independent control over their principalities.
15. 1480 – The Grand Duchy of Moscow broke free from Turkic control after growing in powerful, and were victorious in the standoff after they refused to continue paying tribute.
16. 1547 – Ivan IV became the first Tsar of Russia (still Grand Duchy of Moscow), first to consolidate previously semi-independent principalities, forming the basis for modern Russia.
17. 1552 – Russia conqueredand annexed the Khanate of Kazan, adding a significant Muslim population, making it a multi-ethnic/cultural/religious state. The Khanate of Astrakhan was annexed in 1554.
18. 1558 – The Livonian War, pitting Russia against Denmark, Sweden, Lithuania and Poland, for control of Greater Livonia (modern Estonia, Latvia). It began with a dispute between Latvia and Russia over ownership of ports along Narva River, which fed the Baltic Sea. The other nations had claims in the area as well, pulling them into the conflict. Russia was defeated in 1582, losing access to the Baltic Sea. Sweden gained Estonia.
19. 1598 – Russian conquest of Siberia (Khanate of Siberia).
20. 1613 – Beginning of the Romanov dynasty in Russia, which would last until the Communist Revolution in 1917. From 1603 to 1613, Russia experienced famine, then subsequent civil wars which lured the Polish to invade and take the throne, but they were ousted in 1613, and a Romanov was elected to the throne.
21. 1640 – Russians expand territory/Siberia to Pacific Ocean.
22. 1648 – Cossack Uprising in modern central/northeast Ukraine against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth regime. It resulted in an independent Turkic state that was a client state to Russia. Cossacks were a Turk people that had survived in the region for hundreds of years, and had developed friendly relations with Ukrainians. Hundreds of thousands of Jews were slaughtered by the Cossacks.
23. 1654 – 1657 – Russia gained control over Ukraine from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the Russian-Polish War.
24. 1700 – The Great Northern War (battle for supremacy of Baltic Sea), pitting Sweden against alliance of Denmark-Norway, Russia, Saxony-Poland, Prussia. Sweden had been the dominant power in the north for about a century, but had been in a process of decline. Each of these countries had lost territory or trade to Sweden, and allied to reverse this. The war would end in 1721, with Sweden losing continental Baltic territories (Latvia and Estonia) to Russia, and Russia becoming the great power in the north. Poland had served as the battlefield, and was badly decimated, falling under Russian dominance due to its weakened state. Russia gained ports on the Gulf of Finland, giving Russia its first access to the sea, at ports which were not frozen the majority of the year. St. Petersburg (established during reign of Peter I the Great) was subsequently established (in 1703, during the early years of the war), giving Russia the ability to engage in maritime trade with the rest of Europe.
25. 1725 – A weakened and disorganized Poland-Lithuania comes under Russian domination, serving as a client/buffer state.
26. 1768 – 1774 – The Russo-Turkish War ended in a Russian victory. It began with the Ottomans declaring war on Russia. Russia gained Southern Ukraine, the Northern Caucasus and Crimea, giving it access to the Black Sea.
27. 1772 – First Partition of Poland. Poland became a protectorate of Russia, but its ill-protected western territories were now threatened by Prussia and Austria. Prussia, Austria and Russia agreed to a partition, as Russia realized it did not have the resources to defend entire nation. The bulk of Poland-Lithuania remains intact, but largely under foreign domination. Russia directly annexed the eastern tract of land from Poland-Lithuania. The extreme west of Ukraine was allocated to Austria. Both Austria and Russia would attempt to end Ukrainian culture and language.
28. 1775 – Russia imposed direct rule over the independent Cossack state in modern Ukraine, absorbing into the Russian Empire.
29. 1793 – (Second Partition of Poland) After constitutionalists attempted to install constitution similar to that of the U.S., Russia and Prussia invaded to protect against an overthrow of the Russian-controlled Polish government. This reduced Poland-Lithuania Commonwealth to just primarily these two original states, extricated of its client states. In this second partition, Russia took a large portion of eastern Poland-Lithuania. Prussia took another section of western Poland.
30. 1795 – Polish insurgents attempted to regain their country from the Russians, Prussians and Austrians. The three captor nations subdued the revolutionaries, and divided Poland-Lithuania for a third time, ending the 200+ year old commonwealth, and bringing all of its territories under foreign ownership. Belarus was annexed into Russia. Most of Lithuania was allocated to Russia, and a smaller part to Prussia. Austria and Prussia took portions of western Poland.
31. 1807 – War of Fourth Coalition. France conquered Poland from Prussia and Austria, establishing the Duchy of Warsaw, a France puppet state in Poland.
32. 1809 – Russia gained Finland from a weakened Sweden in the Finnish War. Russia had its eye on the rest of Finland, which was possessed by Sweden, and suggested to Napoleon that Sweden be forced to join Napoleon's Continental System (a European-wide economic system integrated with France). When Sweden refused, Russia had an excuse to invade with Napoleon’s blessing, gaining all of Sweden’s Finnish territories.
33. 1812 – The Ottomans, an ally of France, goes to war with Russia in 1806. Russia gained the territory of Bessarabia (the majority of modern Moldova).
34. 1815 – After Napoleon’s defeat, the Kingdom of Poland was established, which was ruled by the Russian Tsar.
35. 1853 – 1856 – Crimean War. France, United Kingdom and the Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia, over controversy concerning the role as protectorate of Christians in Ottoman Empire. France and Russia both claimed to be the protectorate of Christians in the Holy Land, with France asserting Roman Catholic authority, and Russia asserting Eastern Orthodoxy authority. Russia temporarily lost naval bases in Black Sea upon its defeat. Russia was abandoned by ally Austria, which would cause Russia to withhold support in Austria’s war against Prussia in 1866, contributing to its defeat.
36. 1859 – As part of the Crimean War, Moldavia gained the southern part of Bessarabia from Russia, combining with Wallachia to form Romania.
37. 1864 – 1865 – When Russia abolished serfdom in Poland, it led to another uprising, led by nobles, which was again defeated by the Russians. Poland was removed of its status as a semi-autonomous Kingdom of Poland, assimilating into Russia as a province in its empire, placing it under direct rule. Germany would attempt to “Germanize” Poles in its eastern provinces (which included parts of traditional Poland), while the Russians would attempt to fully assimilate Poles within its borders into Russian culture.
38. 1878 – After the Ottoman Empire was defeated by Russia in the final Russo-Turkish War, it agreed to hand Cyprus over to the United Kingdom. Russia desired to annex Romania, Serbia, Montenegro and Bulgaria, but the UK prevented it from doing so with show of force. Russia gained Khanates of Kokand, Bokhara and Khiva, expanding further into Central Asia.
39. 1885 – Russia annexed Turkestan.
40. After the 1917 Russian Revolution, which started during World War I, a civil war between the communists and anti-communists began. The Soviet Union officially formed in 1922 with the victory of the communists (Bolsheviks), consisting of Russian Soviet Social Republic, and (client states/republics) Belarus SSR, Ukraine SSR, Transcaucasian SSR (Caucasian Region between Black/Caspian Seas).
41. 1917 – Bessarabia separated from Russia, joining its historical compatriots in Romania.
42. 1917 – Finland declared independence after the October Revolution, since the personal union with the monarch no longer applied, as the monarch had been overthrown. This would begin the Finnish Civil War, between Reds (pro-Soviets) and Whites (anti-Soviets). The Whites would win, causing Finland to escape Soviet control. Soviets would intervene on behalf of the Reds, while Germany intervened on behalf of the whites, helping them to victory. Finland would have become a German property, but Germany surrendered soon after, leaving Finland to be completely independent in 1918.
43. 1917 – After the October Revolution in Russia, Estonia declared independence. The Germans then moved in to occupy Estonia, but were driven out in 1918. The Russians then moved in, but the Estonians drove them out by 1920, as part of Estonian War of Independence, in which Estonia became independent from Russia.
44. By 1918, following World War I, Ukraine had splintered into multiple republics, each claiming independence, as a result of Russia's precarious condition due to civil war. Belarus had also declared itself as an independent republic. By 1921, Poland captured western part of Ukraine (Galicia), while Russia incorporated the larger part of Ukraine into the newly-formed USSR by 1919. Belarus was also regained by Russia by 1919, and incorporated into the Soviet Union.
45. 1918 – Upon Germany’s defeat in WWI, Lithuania declared independence, beginning the Wars of Independence against Russia, and Poland (who they fought over border disputes). Battles with Poland would continue until WWII. In 1918, with the turmoil in Russia after WWI, Latvia also declared independence. Both achieved independence from the Soviet Union.
46. 1921 – Poland and Russia entered a peace treaty to end the Polish-Soviet War, where both sides attempted to regain former territories at expense of the other. The war established the border between the two nations. Ukraine was split between Poland and Russia, with the western portion of Galicia going to Poland, and the remainder going to Russia.
47. In 1939, as part of the Secret Nazi-Soviet Pact, the USSR received Galicia (western Poland), which it took by force, adding it to Ukraine. The USSR also laid claim to Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia. Russia would take possession of each of these early in World War II, but would fail to take possession of Finland, who successfully defended themselves against the Soviets.
48. 1939 – 1940 – Winter War between Finland and USSR, as the USSR tried to capture Finland as part of the non-aggression treaty with the Nazis. Finland resisted, unlike most nations bordering Russia to its west, but lost the region of Finnish Karelia to the USSR.
49. 1940 –The USSR also partitioned Northern Bukovina and Budjak from Romania, assigning them to Ukraine SSR.
50. 1940 – Pressured by the Soviets, and weakened by a German invasions from the west, Romania ceded the territories that would make up Moldova to Russia (part of former Moldavia). It was formed as Moldavian SSR, a client state to the USSR. Romania would then join the Axis against Russia in an attempt to regain this lost territory.
51. 1941 – 1944: Nazi occupation of Ukraine and Belarus. Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania also fell to the Nazis. All were regained by the USSR in 1944.
52. USSR demands that Carpatho-Ukraine (lost to Hungary in 1939, conquered by Red Army in 1944) be annexed into the USSR (Ukraine).
53. 1990 – Upon the collapse of the USSR, several of its republics become independent, including Belarus, Ukraine, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova and Georgia. 

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Etymology (How Name Received):

Derived from the original East Slav state that served as the predecessor to the Russian, Ukraine and Belarus nations: Kievan Rus.

Russian Culture:

In the 10th century, the Russians came under the cultural influence of the Byzantine Greeks. The Byzantine Empire, centered in modern Greece and Turkey, represented the continuation of the Roman Empire in the Greek world, and was one of the most powerful political entities throughout the Middle Ages.

In the 10th century, Russia weighed its options between offering its allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church, choosing to follow the ecclesiastic authority of the Eastern Orthodox Church based in Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire.

The Russians would eventually establish their own church - The Russian Orthodox Church - after Constantinople came under Muslim Ottoman rule in the 15th century. But the church, and Russian culture, would be heavily influenced by Byzantine culture. After converting to Eastern Orthodoxy, Russia would translate many Greek literary works into Russian, assimilating a major Greek component into its own culture.

Russia would also pattern its architecture after Byzantine architecture, with many architectural landmarks in Russia closely resembling medieval Byzantine design.

Russia's cold climate has also impacted its culture, from clothing to beverages. Vodka was invented in Russia, born out of necessity due to its inability to freeze, regardless of the temperature. Vodka has played a prominent role in Russian history (with Russian troops withstanding more powerful invading armies, as enemy water supplies froze while Russians remained hydrated by their Vodka reservoirs), and is a staple for many Russians to this day.

Russia in 2008:

Economy: Economic problems after the collapse of the USSR culminated in the Financial Crisis of 1998. Caused by global economic downturn, aftermath of currency manipulation, expenditures from Chechen War, and compounded by deflation in commodity prices of major Russian imports (oil, minerals, metals). Inflation and unemployment skyrocketed, while shortages of almost every critical item occurred. Strong and immediate recovery began in full force the following year, as world commodity prices jumped sharply (especially oil). This fueled an economic rally continuing into 2008, thanks to increasing oil and commodity prices. Russia remains vulnerable to world commodity prices, as oil, natural gas, timber and metals account for about 80% of exports.
Government: Federal Republic (union of partially self-governing states)
Religion: Russian Orthodox 15-20%, Muslim 10-15%, other Christian 2%. Most of Russia citizens are atheist or non-practicing Russian Orthodox Christians, as result of the anti-religious Soviet era.
Demographics: Russian 80%, Tatar 4% (middle age Tatar migrations into Southern Russia, long time habitation there), Ukrainian 2% (USSR connection), Unspecified 12%. High death rate has resulted in population decrease, despite normal birth rate.
Foreign Policy: Primary objective is to reassert influence in former Soviet states, especially in Eastern Europe, which served as an important buffer for Russia. Opposes Kosovo independence, Serbian pro-Western government, Ukraine potentially joining EU, preventing these regions from growing further away from Russia politically, all in hopes of re-asserting control.
Population: 140,702,094 (2008)

 

Formation of Nations (All European Nations)

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